ACUTE FRACTURES OF THE FIFTH METATARSAL

history
. Three distinctly different patterns
. Avulsion fracture of styloid process
. Transverse fracture of proximal diaphysis (Jones fracture)
. Distal spiral fractures (Ballet fracture)
. Avulsion fractures occur by inversion mechanism.
. Jones fracture common in running, jumping sports
. May report prodrome of pain prior to presentation with Jones fracture,
suggesting stress reaction in bone
. Lateral foot pain with weight-bearing
physical exam
. Tenderness over base of fifthmetatarsal
. Pain with active eversion of foot
. May have pain with passive inversion
. Be sure to examine lateral ankle ligament stability.
studies
. Plain radiographs (AP, lateral, oblique)
. Avulsion type is usually extra-articular
. Three patterns Jones fracture: acute, delayed union, nonunion
. True acute Jones fracture will have sharp fracture line, no intramedullary
sclerosis.
. Delayed union: see some evidence of pre-existing fracture (wider
fracture gap, some intramedullary sclerosis)
. Don’t confuse avulsion type with two sesamoids: os peroneum (in
peroneus logus) and os vesalianum (in peroneus brevis).
. Don’t confuse avulsion type with unfused apophysis at base of fifth
metatarsal (closes age 16).
differential diagnosis
. Stress fracture
. Lateral ankle ligament injury
. Injury to cuboid-metatarsal joint
. Peroneus brevis tendinitis/tenosynovitis
treatment
. Avulsion fracture of styloid process
. Short-leg walking cast 2–3 weeks
. Weight-bear as tolerated
. Even nonunion of this type of fracture can be left alone.
. Symptomatic nonunion (rare): excise fragment, repair peroneus
brevis
. Displaced intra-articular avulsion fracture (rare): consider open
reduction/internal fixation
. Jones fracture
. Acute: nonweight-bearing cast immobilization 6–8 weeks
. Consider surgical treatment in athlete

. Delayed union: consider trial of nonweight-bearing cast, immobilization,
may require surgery
. Nonunion: surgery
. Medullary curettage and inlay bone graft or closed intramedullary
screw fixation with 4.5-mm malleolar screw
. Use largest screw diameter possible.
. Postop: nonweight-bearing cast for 2 weeks, followed by progressive
weight-bearing in hard-soled shoe
. Ballet fracture
. Short-leg walking cast or Camwalker
disposition
N/A
prognosis
. Acute fractures heal in 6–8 weeks.
. Delayed union treated conservatively may take>1 year for full healing.
. Nonunion treated with surgery heals in average 3months.
. Return to sports after surgery: approximately 8 weeks
. Complications of screw fixation
. Screw fracture
. Screw protrusion out of metatarsal
. Tenderness over screw head
. Refracture
caveats and pearls
. These fractures have propensity for nonunion due to poor blood
supply.
. Refracture can occur if return to sports too early.
. Use of foot orthosis recommended for early return to sports
. Plain radiographs may not be sensitive enough to determine healing
. Consider CT or tomograms.
. If refracture occurs after return to sports, consider exchange to
larger screw or use of inlay bone graft.

SOUND MIXING

The final sound mix, called the rerecording mix, combines and balances separate dialogue, sound effects and music tracks into one final soundtrack.The rerecording mixer sets the level of each sound element to highlight the most important sounds. Generally, the mixer emphasizes dialogue and key sound effects while softening background noises like car engines or street sounds, unless the story demands that dialogue be difficult to hear, as in a battle scene. Contrast between sound and image or between sound and silence is effective to build tension or to deliver more information.The final shootout in Road to Perdition takes place in a downpour. Instead of the expected pounding deluge on the soundtrack, we hear only the whisper of gentle rain, a subtle cue that this is a scene envisioned many years later by the killer’s son. Loud sound effects are more jarring if they are followed or preceded by soft sounds or by silence. Because the film viewer cannot hear everything that is seen on the screen, sound mixers must direct the viewer’s attention to the important elements. One way to do this is by using sound as it might be heard by a character in the film. This is called “point of audition.” At one point in the D-Day invasion scene in Saving Private Ryan, the sound-track is muffled because we are hearing sound from the perspective of a character temporarily deafened by the bombing. Just like a movie camera, sound can move the viewer from a “long-shot” to a “close-up.” By fading noisy background chatter in a crowded room, a filmmaker can direct the audience’s attention to an intimate conversation between two people. Movie sound is usually associated with the people and objects onscreen. When the film shows a woman walking a dog down a busy street, the audience hears her voice, the jingle of the dog’s leash, and the roar of the passing cars.This is called “source sound.” Narration, voiceovers and musical scores are the most common examples of non-source sound. Other offscreen sounds can alert the viewer to a change in scene, mood or character. In The Last Samurai, for instance, the audience hears the almost supernatural sounds of the advancing samurai troops for some time before they emerge from the mist. Overlapping sound can connect unrelated settings, places or times. At the beginning of Apocalypse Now, the synthesized sound of helicopter blades is merged with that of a ceiling fan, taking the story from the main character’s memories of fighting in the Vietnamese jungle to his present location in a Saigon hotel. Sound differs depending on a scene’s mood, location, historical period and time of day. It can be used to enhance characterizations.When Michael Corleone kills his dinner companions in The Godfather, a train outside thunders past like an unuttered scream, mirroring his disturbed emotional state. The soundtrack, as much as the visual effects, help the animated characters in Stuart Little hold their own with the live actors. Modern 35mm film stock carries four sound tracks: Dolby stereo, an analog system, Dolby SR-D digital, SDDS (Sony Dynamic Digital Sound) and DTS (Digital Theater Systems). By using this combined format, one film print can be screened in any theater, no matter what sound system is in use. Have your students think about the following scene:A boy and girl walk down a quiet road. Turning a corner, they see a menacing bulldog behind a sagging chain link fence. The angry dog lunges against its restraints, banging into the fence. The children give the dog a wide berth, but the boy slips in a puddle of water.The girl pulls him up by his hands, and they run quickly to safety.

TREATMENTS FOR ANTERIOR CRUCIATE LIGAMENT INJURY

Treatment
. Acute
. Establish diagnosis
. Ice, resolution of swelling, closed-chain quadmotion recovery
. Avoid immobilization
. Physical therapy
. Consider MRI
. Treatment considerations
. Age
. Activity level
. Category I sports (e.g., basketball, football, soccer, volleyball)
. Associated injuries (e.g., meniscus,MCL)
. Amount of pathologic laxity (e.g., Grade 2 or 3 pivot)
. Sports participation
. Expectation
. KT-1000 maximummanual (>6mmSSD, poor prognosis)
. Treatment options
. Nonsurgical
. Activity modificationmandatory
. ACL brace – Low-level activities
. Does not prevent instability
. Reduces severity and frequency of instability
. May require arthroscopy for meniscal pathology
. Surgical: tissue options
. Patellar tendon autograft
. Hamstrings
. Quadriceps tendon
. Allograft
. Irradiated vs. nonirradiated
. Patellar tendon vs. Achilles tendon
Disposition
N/A
Prognosis
. Nonsurgical treatment
. Low probability of high-level sports participation
. High likelihood of recurrent injuries –meniscal, articular
. Subjective satisfaction generally low
. 50% function due to ACL functional brace
. Surgical treatment
. Preferred for most individuals
. Stability success 85–90%
. Patient satisfaction 95%
. Patellar pain testing variable (10–40%)
. Side-to-side functional testing: 40–90% normal
. Return to play
. Nonoperative
. Should be braced
. Usually 4–6 weeks
. Caution that reinjury common
. Reconstructive
. Graft and sport dependent
. 4–6monthsmost surgeons; others recommend 6–9months
. Criteria – Normal stability, motion functional testing within
10–15%
. Complications of surgical treatment
. Infection (1%)
. Deep venous thrombosis, pulmonary embolus (1%)
. Patellar fracture, patellar tendon rupture (1%)
. Loss ofmotor (extension and/or flexion)
. Recurrent laxity (micro/macrotraumatic)
. Reinjury (5–10%) – Time-dependent
. Opposite side ACL injury –More common than graft disruption
Caveats and Pearls
. Suspect ACL injury in athlete with hemarthrosis.
. A patient with a displaced bucket handle meniscal tear (locked
knee) has an ACL injury until proven otherwise.
. “Partial” ACL injuries are extremely uncommon (<5%); athlete has
an ACL-deficient knee until proven otherwise.
. ACL diagnosis is established by history and exam; MRI should not
be used to establish diagnosis.
. ACL reconstructive surgery is not a surgical emergency.
. Postop motion complications reduced with delayed surgical treatment
. Beware of associated MCL injury, which may contribute to delayed
motion recovery.
. Medial meniscal tears more common in chronic ACL knees; lateral
meniscal tearsmore common in acute injuries
. Postoperative ACL bracing controversial
. ACL injuries three to four times more common in females (multifactorial)
. Accelerated rehab programs for patellar tendon graft current standard
. Surgical results similar for patellar tendon vs. hamstring autograft
. Surgical results of single- vs. double-incision arthroscopic techniques
similar
. Current graft choices: patellar tendon autograft, hamstring, quadriceps
tendon, nonirradiated patellar tendon allograft
. Outpatient ACL reconstruction feasible
. Postop continuous passive motion is longer standard of care
. Avoid open-chain quad extension exercises during rehab.

ACUTE NAVICULAR FRACTURE

History
. History of trauma
. Midfoot pain and swelling
Physical exam
. Swelling and exquisite pain on dorsomedial aspect of midfoot
. Dorsal lip avulsion – two ligaments insert on dorsum of navicular
. Dorsal talonavicular
. Stressed with inversion and plantarflexion
. Anterior aspect of deltoid ligament
. Stressed with eversion
. Tuberosity fractures
. Result of acute valgus or eversion injury increases stress on posterior
tibialis tendon
Studies
. AP, oblique, and lateral radiographs
. Examine closely formidtarsal joint (Lisfranc) injuries
. Bone scans, CT scan, MRI for occult fractures
. Differentiate acute tuberosity fracture fromaccessory navicular
. Accessory navicular is smooth and regular
Differential diagnosis
. Cuneiformand cuboid fractures
. Navicular stress fracture
. Running or jumping athletes
. Navicular avulsion fracture
Treatment
. Dorsal lip avulsion
. Conservative
. Weight-bearing cast for 4–6 weeks
. Open reduction and internal fixation if fragment is>25% of navicular
. Displaced acute fractures treated with anatomic and stable internal
fixation
. Anatomic reduction of talonavicular joint more critical
. Mobility of this joint is important for function
. Anatomic reduction of anterior and distal navicular not critical
. Naviculocuneiformjoints have littlemotion
Disposition
N/A
Prognosis
. Navicular is largely covered with articular cartilage
. Notmuch room for nutrient vessels to enter
. Makes the tarsal navicular subject to osteonecrosis
Caveats and Pearls
. Located in the uppermost part of the arch, the navicular is the keystone
for vertical stress on the arch
. Anatomic reduction essential to restore talonavicular motion

LEARNING from the BEST – PART A

Using Computer Generated Imagery (CGI), an animator can reproduce the three-dimensional effects of stop-motion photography or the twodimensional effects of hand-drawn animation. Instead of pen and ink, paint, clay, paper or cels, computer animators use a screen, a mouse, hardware and software and mathematical formulas. Rather than sketching out characters and objects like traditional animators, computer animators build a three-dimensional "model" that can be viewed from different angles.This model can be displayed as a "wireframe," which looks like wires, in "polys" mode, similar to video game graphics, or "anim rendered," a more polished representation. CGI can imitate camera moves and angles that would be difficult or impossible to achieve with traditional cel animation: the swoop from the chandelier to the dancing couple in the ballroom scene of Beauty and the Beast, for example. Because of its ability to mimic reality, CGI is also used to produce special effects in live action films. CGI can create digital tears or blood, embellish backgrounds and sets, make a small crowd seem large, or touch up the actors' wrinkles and flaws. The 1982 film Tron, which combined live-action with animation, was the first film to use CGI on a large scale. Early computer graphics looked unappealingly flat, but recent improvements in technology such as "bump maps" create more realistic surfaces.When the Academy instituted the Best Animated Feature Film award in 2001, it was captured by the CGI-animated film Shrek. Computer animators still have trouble duplicating soft shapes and textures such as human skin and hair and the movement of clothes and draperies.The most difficult task facing the special effects animators who created Gollum for the live-action film The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers was developing new computer codes to provide the creature with translucent, lifelike skin. Use of the computer does not necessarily mean less work for the animator. It took four years to complete Toy Story, the first completely CGI-animated feature; coincidentally, it took the same amount of time for the Disney studio to finish Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs. CGI may never completely replace traditional animation, because some animators still prefer the latter’s personal touch and slight irregularities. For others, using CGI can be compared to using the computer instead of a typewriter for writing, in that the new tool allows the animator to manipulate ideas and images with greater freedom. Part A. Have your students compare hand-drawn or stop-motion animation to CGI animation, using selections from these films: Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, Alice in Wonderland, Lilo & Stitch and Fantasia employ hand-drawn cell animation. Chicken Run and The Nightmare before Christmas are three-dimensional films made using stop-motion photography. Toy Story and Shrek are CGI animations. Most of Beauty and the Beast was drawn on cels, but the ballroom scene is a good example of early computer animation. CGI was used to create the stampede scene in The Lion King, an otherwise hand-drawn film. Ask your students if they notice differences between CGI and traditional animation. Have them consider why animators might choose a traditional method of animation if CGI animation can duplicate traditional effects.

ANTERIOR CRUCIATE LIGAMENT INJURY

History

. Mechanism: sudden deceleration, cutting, valgus force contact or
noncontact, hyperextension
. Patient may recall pop or tearing sensation – 80%
. Painful, inability to continue activity
. Rapid hemarthrosis within 3 hours – 80%
. If chronicmay have history of recurrent instability
. Common sports: skiing, basketball, volleyball, football, soccer
. May be isolated or in conjunction with multiple ligament injuries –
medial collateral (MCL), posterior cruciate (PCL), posterolateral or
knee dislocation
. Often associated with meniscal pathology and/or articular cartilage
injury
. Knee instability complaints: jumping, twisting, deceleration, cutting
activities
Physical exam
.Acute: effusion, bloody hemarthrosis if aspirated
. Joint line tenderness suggestive of associated meniscal pathology
. Ligament laxity exam – compare to uninjured knee
. Abnormal Lachman testmost sensitive test
. Increased anterior tibial translation @ 20–30. knee fusion
. Positive pivot shift test (Losee, Hughston, flexion rotator drawer
variants)
. Pathognomonic of complete anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury
. Subluxation – Reduction phenomenon related to axial compression,
valgus loading, and flexion/extension occurred at 15–30.
. Associated ligament laxity tests
. MCL – Valgus laxity at 0., 30.
. Lateral collateral ligament – Valgus laxity at 0., 30.
. PCL – Increased posterior translation at 90. (posterior drawer),
posterior sag test (gravity flexion test)
. Posterolateral – Increased posterolateral rotation, increased
external tibial rotation, asymmetric dial test
. Locked knee –Displaced bucket handle meniscal tear, rule out associated
ACL injury
Studies
. Radiographs
. AP, lateral, tunnel,Merchant (four views)
. Generally normal
. Lateral capsular sign (Segond fracture): marginal avulsion fracture
fromanterolateral tibial plateau pathognomonic
. Lateral notch sign (chronic ACL): accentuation of indentation
of sulcus terminalis in lateral femoral condyle; rarely seen with
PCL/posterolateral corner (PLC) injury
. Chronic ACL deficiency: periarticular osteophytes, tibial eminence
peaking, intercondylar notch narrowing
. MRI
. Highly sensitive/specific for ACL injury
. Generally does not differentiate between partial or complete
ACL injury
. Associated meniscal pathology common
. Bone bruise noted (80%), lateral femoral condyle, lateral tibial
condyle most common
. Effusion frequently noted
. MRI value: detecting associated meniscal pathology and articular
cartilage pathology
. KT-1000
. Instrumented laxity testing device
. Measures side-to-side differences (SSD) and absolute translation
. Dx: maximum manual SSD >3 mm; 30-pound anterior translation
>10mm
Differential diagnosis
. Hemarthrosis
. ACL, patellar dislocation, peripheral meniscal tear, intra-articular
fracture, PCL injury, popliteus tendon avulsion
. Instability
. Patellar instability
. Meniscal tear (e.g., bucket handle)
. Posterolateral
. Quad weakness – giving way with level walking/standing

ACUTE COMPARTMENT SYNDROME

history
. Definition: Increased pressure in a confined tissue space that
reduces capillary blood flow below a level necessary for viability of
normal tissue
. Etiology 1: Increased volume within a closed space (i.e., trauma,
hemorrhage, or reperfusion injury)
. Etiology 2: Decreased size of an enclosed space (i.e. cast, constrictive
dressing, orMAST trousers)
Pathogenesis
. Muscle injury: edema/hemorrhage – Increased pressure in enclosed
space – ischemia – further soft tissue damage
. Circulatory injury: Swelling with reperfusion – increased pressure in
enclosed space – ischemia – further soft tissue damage
. Muscle ischemia reversible up to 4 hours, irreversible after 8
. Nerve ischemia results in reversible neuropraxia under 3 hours and
irreversible after 8
Compartments
. Anterior
. Lateral
. Deep posterior
. Superficial posterior
physical exam
. Five P’s: Pain, Pallor, Paresthesias, Pulselessness, Paralysis
. Pain out of proportion to injury
. Pain with passive stretch of foot
. Pallor skin tone
. Loss of or decreased pulses (uncommon and/or a very late finding)
. Paralysis or sensory changes after ischemia >1 hour
. Tense, swollen compartments (most sensitive finding)
. Glossy appearance of skin
studies
. Labs
. Elevated CPK values are common with ischemia but also elevated
in trauma
. Compartment pressuremeasurement
. Indicated in polytrauma, obtunded patient, orwith inconclusive
clinical diagnosis
. Direct measurement of involved compartments using needle
catheter such as a Stryker STIC catheter, WICK catheter, or
transducer fromarterial line
. Pressure threshold requiring fasciotomy is controversial.
. Multiple sampling sites, with the highest value recorded and
used to determine the need for fasciotomy
. Fasciotomy recommended with a measured pressure >35
mmHg or a pressure 20 mmHg below the measured diastolic
blood pressure (number varies)
differential diagnosis
. Compartment syndrome is a surgical emergency. If clinically suspected,
then the diagnosis is compartment syndrome until proven
otherwise.
treatment
. Nonoperative
. Remove compressive dressings, casts, etc.
. Elevate leg to level of heart only.
. Compartment measurements if clinically suspicious
. Operative
. Two-incision fasciotomy to decompress compartments
. Anterolateral incision – half the distance between fibula and tibial
crest; used to decompress the anterior and lateral compartments
. Beware exiting superficial peroneal nerve through fascial defect
distally
. Posteriormedial incision – 2 cmposterior to medial tibia
. Delayed primary closure at 4–7 days with possible skin graft if
Needed

disposition
N/A
prognosis
. Good if recognized and treated early
. Poor if delayed diagnosis and/or intervention
Complications
. Infection
. Claw toes
. Dysfunctional extremity
. Amputation
caveats and pearls
. Early recognition is the key to successful treatment.
. Remember the five P’s.
. If you are thinking about checking the compartment pressures,
check them!
. Acute compartment syndrome is a surgical emergency.

DRAWING MOVEMENT- PART B

Like painters, animators use perspective and scale to create depth, and color to enhance mood, but most of the visual information in an animated film is transmitted through movement. Before animating a scene, animators study the way their subjects move, whether they are animals, people or leafy trees. Although the movements they draw are based on real life, animators often caricature or exaggerate both movement and design. Animated characters, like human actors, express themselves with gestures, mannerisms, posture and facial expressions as well as voice. A tilted head can indicate surprise. A body slanted forward suggests speed. A character freezes at a scary sound. Background movement also conveys meaning.The gentle flutter of leaves signals a breeze, but when the leaves toss and turn, it could mean a storm is coming. Animators use the term "squash and stretch" to describe the effect of gravity on living creatures and pliable material. Racing after the Road Runner, Wile E. Coyote flies off a cliff and plummets downward. His body smashes into the ground (squash) and then elongates into a bounce (stretch). In this instance, the deformation is used for comic effect, but in more realistic situations squash andstretch lend weight to characters and make expressions such as smiles or frowns convincing. Choosing the right look for a character is important for creating its personality. A "cute" character might be drawn with characteristics that resemble a human baby's, such as a large head, small body, high forehead, big eyes and short, plump arms and legs. A bully, on the other hand, might have a small head, a thick or nonexistent neck, a big chest, and short legs. Exaggerated features and a quirky posture could indicate a comic character.The animator can also use these traits to ridicule stereotypes.The mutant toys in Toy Story, for example, turn out to be selfless and helpful, not dangerous as they first seem to be. Handsome Gaston in Beauty and the Beast is also egotistical and mean. Discuss with your students what animator Norman McClaren meant by the statement,“Animation is not the art of drawings-that-move but rather the art of movements-that-are-drawn.” Have them think of an emotion such as anger, fear, happiness or surprise and act it out in front of a mirror or the class. Ask them to describe the facial and body movements that communicated the emotion and explain why some people consider an animator the actor of an animated film.

The ORIGINS of SOUND FILM

Filmmakers have always understood the power that sound and music have to enhance story telling. Although silent films did not have dialogue or soundtracks as we know them, organists, pianists or full orchestras supplied live musical accompaniment in theaters, and often sound effects were created on the spot by sound-effects specialists. Short sound films were being made as early as 1900. In 1926,Warner Bros. produced Don Juan, a 10-reel silent film, which was distributed with a Vitaphone disk recording of sound effects and orchestral music. Many of the world’s top filmmakers and executives believed that this would be sound technology’s ultimate usage, as silent film pantomime had created a “universal” language. October 6, 1927, saw the debut of Warner Bros.’ The Jazz Singer, a 90-minute film with a sound recording thatfeatured a few synchronized songs and lines of dialogue, including Al Jolson’s famous declaration “You ain’t heard nothing yet!” Although Jolson was not the first person to speak or sing on film, audiences raved.The film won a special Academy Award as “a pioneer outstanding talkingpicture, which has revolutionized the industry.” In 1928, Warner Bros. released the first all-talking feature film, Lights of New York, and Blackmail, the first British “talkie,” was in theaters by 1929.That same year, U.S. film studios released over 300 sound films. By 1931, the last silent feature-length films had been released. Sound films drew viewers, but the new technology created new problems for filmmakers. Previously mobile cameras were confined to soundproof boxes, and actors were forced to stay close to microphones concealed on the set. As a result, filmmakers emphasized the novelty of speech more than camera moves. Comedies, for example, depended less on visual slapstick for laughs and more on witty dialogue.Thick accents or unpleasant voices ended the careers of many popular silent film stars.The visual pantomime used by silent film actors seemed overstated when sound brought an added layer of realism to the performance, and soon younger, Broadway-trained stars brought new faces to the screen.This era is affectionately parodied in the 1952 musical Singin’ in the Rain. Before long, devices such as the “blimp,” a sound-proof camera covering that muffled noisy cameras, brought action back to movies. Now, instead of speaking into a hidden microphone, actors moved about the set followed by an operator with a “boom,” a microphone on a long pole, held above the camera frame line. Early sound films continued to use sound-on-disk systems like Vitaphone. In theaters, it was often difficult to keep the sound and film reels going at the same speed, which meant that sometimes viewers heard a man’s voice when a woman spoke or other comical misalignments. Movietone sound-on-film was developed during the same period by Fox Films, allowing for transferring sound directly onto the film print.This process ensured that sound and image were synchronized before movies reached the theaters, and by 1931, it had become the industry standard. Have your students watch a short scene without the sound and note what information in the scene is conveyed just by the visuals. Then do the opposite: have them listen to another scene without looking at it and write down what they think is happening in the scene. Amelie and The Black Stallion are both good films to listen to without pictures. Other suggestions are the airplane crash scene in Cast Away, the scene in In the Heat of the Night where the police chief interrogates Tibbs or the opening shipboard scene in Master and Commander:The Far Side of the World. Ask your students to consider what is known about the age, gender and personalities of the characters, the tone, time of day, historical period and setting of the scene from the sound alone.Then have your students watch and listen to the scene and discuss the way sound adds to the experience. Ask them to look for instances where the picture and the soundtrack are giving different, or perhaps even conflicting, information simultaneously.

IMAGINING ACTION

Cel animation is the most familiar type of animation, but a good animator can bring clay models,sand, paper, puppets or pins to life. Shapes or figures are cut out and photographed against a backlight for silhouette animation or arranged and shot from above to create collage animation. A more three-dimensional effect can be achieved by using stop-motion photography to animate models or clay. In the two types of animation called "time-lapse photography" and "pixilation," a camera is set to snap one frame at regular intervals.Time-lapse compresses time, reducing the blooming of a flower, for instance, to a few seconds of screen time. Pixilation works in a similar manner, but with actors performing in real time.When the film is played back, the action appears jerky, something like an old silent movie when it is projected at sound speed. Animated films can also be made by drawing or scratching directly on the film, painting scenes on glass, moving thousands of wire-thin black pins on a white pinboard or even by using the photocopying machine. No matter what the material, each step of an animated film is worked out beforehand on a storyboard, which is simply a film in outline form, using sketches, small drawings and captions. Since every second of a typical animated film involves 12 to 24 changes (over 50,000 visuals for a 70-minute film), it is too expensive and time-consuming to complete an entire animation sequence and then scrap it. Even if the animator is not telling a story but has an abstract design in mind, he or she plans in detail the progression of images and how they can be combined to achieve the desired effect on the audience.The storyboard is an indispensable tool for the animator and is revised often. Comic strips, with their captions, close-ups and long-shots and visual storytelling techniques, are similar to storyboards and can help your students understand the format. Encourage them to study comic strips or graphic novels to learn the components of visual storytelling. Discuss the way pacing, dialogue, color, line, shape and composition create moods and emotion and consider the way movement is depicted in a still drawing.Then have students storyboard the key moments in a sequence from one of their own stories or from a selected animated film, using some of the techniques they have studied.

SONGS

Instrumental music is only part of the composer’s tool kit. Songs are often employed to emphasize or comment on the dramatic action in non-musical films. Through listening to the song “When She Loved Me,” in Toy Story 2, the audience learns the sad story of the character “Jesse.” Whether a song is heard on the soundtrack or performed live in the film, the lyrics may express or emphasize the thoughts or emotions of the characters, as they do in Toy Story 2. Or a song may be deliberately chosen to play against them, as in Chicago, when slick lawyer Billy Flynn sings “All I Care About Is Love.” The audience knows he feels exactly the opposite, and Billy’s duplicitous nature is exposed. By using existing popular songs, the composer takes advantage of the audience’s prior associations with the music.Well-known songs can establish an
historical period as in Pleasantville and O Brother Where Art Thou? or evoke a foreign country as in Frida. Songs are so evocative that Lawrence Kasdan, the director of The Big Chill (1983), played 1960s music on the set to help his actors get into the mood of that period. When songs completely or principally comprise the music, as in The Big Chill or the 1973 film American Graffiti, it is called a compilation song score. Original songs, written specifically for a film, such as
the Oscar-winning songs “The Hands That Built America” from the film Gangs of New York and “Moon River,” from Breakfast at Tiffany’s, may either highlight a single dramatic or emotional moment or make a statement about the entire film.The popularity of theme songs like “My Heart Will Go On,” the Oscarwinning song from Titanic, is often exploited to promote the film. In musicals, songs function as a type of dialogue. The music and especially the lyrics of the songs are closely interwoven with the script, whether written expressly for the musical as in Chicago (2002) and the 1991 animated film Beauty and the Beast, or when historical or contemporary popular songs are used, as in Singin’ in the Rain and the 2001 film Moulin Rouge. Finding the right words and melodies to fit the characters and the story is the job of the songwriters, who look for moments in the script that call for a song or for a line of dialogue to inspire the first words of a song. Characters in musicals often break into song when they experience strong feelings they cannot contain.The makers of Chicago, worried that contemporary audiences would find this improbable, presented the musical numbers as being in the imagination of the main character, Roxie Hart. Unlike typical film scores, which are usually composed after the film has finished shooting, songs for musicals are written and recorded before production begins.Then, during filming, the actors lip-sync to the pre-recorded numbers. Moulin Rouge exploits this practice to make the audience aware that the film they are watching is a work of fiction, as for example, when a character seems to be inventing the song “The Sound of Music” although the audience is fully aware that the song was composed years after the period of the film and years before the movie they are watching. Play for your students a song from a movie or a musical. Discuss with them the way the song’s use of rhythm, instrumentation, lyrics and melody reveal or comment on the nature of the character or situation it accompanies. Listen to other sections of the score where the song is reprised or worked into the underscore. Ask your students why they think the composer chose to use the song again in these places. Is it associated with the same characters or the same emotions?

MUSICAL SCORE

Using rhythm and tempo, melodic harmony or dissonant tones, a film score conveys mood, emotion and character in ways that dialogue alone cannot. As early as 1908, French composer Camille Saint-Saens wrote the first score tailored for a specific film, the silent L’Assassinat du Duc de Guise, and Russian director Sergei Eisenstein commissioned a forceful percussive score from composer Edmund Meisel for his 1925 silent film The Battleship Potemkin. Generally, however, silent films were released without musical accompaniment.“Fake books” helped theater organists or musical directors find appropriate compositions for each scene.These books included compositions to cover almost any on-screen situation from romance to battles to comedy. During the early days of sound film, composers condensed or adapted existing musical pieces.Then, in 1933, Max Steiner wrote an innovative score for the RKO film, King Kong, which still influences movie scores today. Rather than a series of musical interludes, Steiner provided a musical illustration of the film’s narrative content. Steiner and the film’s director Merian Cooper agreed not to employ a score during the first part of the film, which showed the realities of Depression-era New York. Instead, the music begins when the characters enter the dream-like fog surrounding mysterious Skull Island. From then on, music accompanies most of the film’s action. A few scenes, like King Kong’s fight with a dinosaur and his battle with circling aircraft from on top of the Empire State Building, were so full of sound that music was judged unnecessary. Following a nineteenth-century operatic model, Steiner used leitmotifs, or themes, for different characters and situations. (One of the best-known examples of a leitmotif is the two-note theme that signals the appearance of the shark in Jaws.) Although King Kong does not speak, his complex personality is depicted through music.The giant ape’s brutality is conveyed by dissonant tunes and the use of brass instruments, for example, while his tragic loneliness is represented by a yearning melody. As Steiner proved, musical scores can provide more than just a background to the rest of the film.The 1945 film The Lost Weekend, starring Ray Milland as an alcoholic on a weekend bender, was originally screened without a musical score.When the audience laughed during the dramatic drunk scenes, the film was immediately withdrawn, and composer Miklos Rosza was hired to write a score.The newly scored film went on to win Best Actor, Best Picture and Best Directing Oscars. Music can also underscore the humor or pathos of a scene by playing against what is seen onscreen. For example, in Life Is Beautiful, light-hearted music performed on the soundtrack while a tragedy unfolds intensifies the sense of loss. Intercutting the cheerful song “Whatever Will Be,Will Be (Que Sera, Sera)” with attempts to free a small boy from his kidnappers heightens the tension in the 1958 film The Man Who Knew Too Much. In some scenes, absence of music is the most eloquent accompaniment. Peter Weir, the director of Master and Commander, requested breaks in the underscore so the audience could hear the sounds of the ship and sink into the daily life of the characters.

SOUND EFFECTS

Much of what the audience sees in a movie has been faked for the camera. Actors fighting onscreen do not really hit each other very hard, for instance, so fight sounds must be added by the sound effects crew. Sound effects include natural sounds such as birds, wind and rain; human sounds such as breathing or heartbeats; the mechanical sounds of engines or explosions; and sounds that identify the film’s location. Footsteps, breathing, the rustle of clothes and the sound of props such as coffee cups or squeaky chairs are created on a Foley stage, named for Jack Foley, who pioneered the technique of recording live sound effects in synchronization with the picture.While watching the projected film, the Foley team uses bodies, voices and props to replace or enhance live sound. Performing Foley is sometimes called “walking Foley” because footsteps are such an important part of the process. The sound effects editor is responsible for all sounds that are not dialogue or made in Foley. Car engines, explosions and other mechanical sounds as well as “atmospheric sounds,” such as animals in a jungle, are deemed sound effects. Sound effects are either manufactured in the recording studio, retrieved from a sound library or recorded in the real world by the sound effects editor. Sometimes the sound effects crew will use recordings of the actual sounds of the objects on the screen specifically for that film as in The Thin Red Line, which used new location recordings of vintage World War II weaponry, artillery and machinery. Other films, for reasons of convenience or necessity, demand more creative solutions. To generate the whine of alien space ships in Independence Day, for example, the sound crew used a recording of screaming baboons. Fabricated sounds can be more effective than real sounds. In Saving Private Ryan, fly fishing lines cast into water were used to replicate gunshots hitting the English Channel during the D-Day invasion. The cartoon-like smack of a face punch in Raiders of the Lost Ark was accomplished by combining several different sounds, including that of a leather jacket thrown onto the hood of an old fire engine and ripe fruit dropped on concrete. Many sound effects can be made using simple materials. Cellophane being crumpled sounds like fire; salt sprinkled on paper evokes rain; hands squishing soggy newspaper
suggest a character walking in mud. Some additional ideas are cutting a cabbage in half to represent a limb amputation; flapping a pair of leather gloves together to reproduce the sound of a flock of birds taking off; and squishing cornstarch to sound like footsteps on snow. A headache tablet dissolved in water stands in for fizzing champagne. Rubber tires squealing on pavement can be simulated by a hot water bottle rubbed against a plastic bag. Crunched up lifesavers could be small bones breaking. Have your students write a short scene or take a scene from a book or story. Using some of the suggestions above or ideas of their own, have the students put together sound effects for the events in the story.